God

"god." This term was the most common general designation of deity in the ancient Near East. While it frequently occurred alone, ’el was also combined with other words to constitute a compound term for deity, or to identify the nature and functions of the "god" in some manner. Thus the expression "God, the God of Israel" (Gen 33:20) identified the specific activities of Israel's God.

In the ancient world, knowledge of a person's name was believed to give one power over that person. A knowledge of the character and attributes of pagan "gods" was thought to enable the worshipers to manipulate or influence the deities in a more effective way than they could have if the deity's name remained unknown. To that extent, the vagueness of the term ’el frustrated persons who hoped to obtain some sort of power over the deity, since the name gave little or no indication of the god's character. This was particularly true for El, the chief Canaanite god. The ancient Semites stood in mortal dread of the superior powers exercised by the gods and attempted to propitiate them accordingly. They commonly associated deity with the manifestation and use of enormous power. Perhaps this is reflected in the curious Hebrew phrase, "the power [’el] of my hand" (Gen 31:29, kjv; rsv, "It is in my power"; cf. Deut 28:32). Some Hebrew phrases in the Psalms associated ’el with impressive natural features, such as the cedar trees of Lebanon (Psa 80:10) or mountains (Psa 36:6). In these instances, ’el conveys a clear impression of grandeur or majesty.

Names with ’el as one of their components were common in the Near East in the second millennium b.c. The names Methusael (Gen 4:18) and Ishmael (Gen 16:11) come from a very early period. In the Mosaic period, ’el was synonymous with the Lord who delivered the Israelites from bondage in Egypt and made them victorious in battle (Num 24:8). This tradition of the Hebrew ’el as a "God" who revealed Himself in power and entered into a covenant relationship with His people was prominent in both poetry (Psa 7:11; Psa 85:8) and prophecy (Isa 43:12; Isa 46:9). The name of ’el was commonly used by the Israelites to denote supernatural provision or power. This was both normal and legitimate, since the covenant between "God" and Israel assured an obedient and holy people that the creative forces of the universe would sustain and protect at all times. Equally, if they became disobedient and apostate, these same forces would punish them severely.

"god." This Aramaic word is the equivalent of the Hebrew ’eloah. It is a general term for "God" in the Aramaic passages of the Old Testament, and it is a cognate form of the word 'allah, the designation of deity used by the Arabs. The word was used widely in the Book of Ezra, occurring no fewer than 43 times between Ezra 4:24 and Ezra 7:26. On each occasion, the reference is to the "God" of the Jewish people, whether the speaker or writer was himself Jewish or not. Thus the governor of the province "Beyond the River" (i.e., west of the river Euphrates) spoke to king Darius of the "house of the great God" (Ezra 5:8). So also Cyrus instructed Sheshbazzar, the governor, that the "house of God be builded" in Jerusalem (Ezra 5:15).

While the Persians were certainly not worshipers of the "God" of Israel, they accorded Him the dignity that befitted a "God of heaven" (Ezra 6:10). This was done partly through superstition; but the pluralistic nature of the newly-won Persian empire also required them to honor the gods of conquered peoples, in the interests of peace an social harmony. When Ezra himself used the word ’elah, he frequently specified the God of the Jews. Thus he spoke of the "God of Israel" (Ezra 5:1; Ezra 6:14), the "God of heaven" (Ezra 5:12; Ezra 6:9) and "God of Jerusalem" (Ezra 7:19); he also associated "God" with His house in Jerusalem (Ezra 5:17; Ezra 6:3). In the decree of Artaxerxes, Ezra was described as "the priest, the scribe of the God of heaven" (Ezra 7:12, 21). This designation would have sounded strange coming from a pagan Persian ruler, had it not been for the policy of religious toleration exercised by the Achaemenid regime. Elsewhere in Ezra, ’elah is associated with the temple, both when it was about to be rebuilt (Ezra 5:2, 13) and as a finished edifice, consecrated for divine worship (Ezra 6:16). In the only verse in the Book of Jeremiah that was written in Aramaic (Jer 10:11), the word ’elah appears in plural form to describe "gods" that had not participated in the creation of the universe. Although such false "gods" were being worshiped by pagan nations (and perhaps worshiped by some of the Hebrews who were in exile in Babylonia), these deities would ultimately perish because they were not eternal in nature. In the Book of Daniel, ’elah was used both of heathen "gods" and the one true "God" of heaven. The Chaldean priests told Nebuchadnezzar: "And it is a rare thing that the king requireth, and there is none other that can show it before the king, except the gods, whose dwelling is not with flesh" (Dan 2:11). The Chaldeans referred to such "gods" when reporting that Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego refused to participate in idol worship on the plain of Dura (Dan 3:12). The "gods" were enumerated by Daniel when he condemned Nebuchadnezzar's neglect to the worship of Israel's one true "God" (Dan 5:23). In Dan 3:25, the word refers to a divine being or messenger sent to protect the three Hebrews (Dan 3:28). In Dan 4:8-9, 18; and Dan 5:11, the phrase "the spirit of the holy gods" appears (kjv, rsv, neb, niv). Elsewhere the references to ’elah are to the living "God" whom Daniel worshiped.

"god." This Hebrew name for "God" corresponds to the Aramaic ’elah and the Ugaritic il (or, if denoting a goddess, ilt). The origin of the term is unknown, and it is used rarely in Scripture as a designation of deity. Indeed, its distribution throughout the various books of the Bible is curiously uneven. ’eloah occurs 40 times in the Book of Job between Job 3:4 and Job 40:2, while in the remainder of the Old Testament it is used no more than 15 times.

Certain scholars regard the word as being a singular version of the common plural form ’elohîm, a plural of majesty. ’eloah is commonly thought to be vocative in nature, meaning "O God." but it is not clear why a special form for the vocative in an address to God should be needed, since the plural ’elohîm is frequently translated as a vocative when the worshiper is speaking directly to God, as in Psa 79:1. There is an obvious general linguistic relationship between ’eloah and ’elohîm, but determining its precise nature is difficult.

The word ’eloah is predominant in poetry rather than prose literature, and this is especially true of the Book of Job. Some scholars have suggested that the author of Job deliberately chose a description for godhead that avoided the historical associations found in a phrase such as "the God of Bethel" (Gen 31:13) or "God of Israel" (Exod 24:10). but even the Book of Job is by no means historically neutral, since places and peoples are mentioned in introducing the narrative (cf. Job 1:1, 15, 17). Perhaps the author considered ’eloah a suitable term for poetry and used it accordingly with consistency. This is also apparently the case in Psa 18:31, where ’eloah is found instead of ’el, as in the parallel passage of 2Sam 22:32. ’eloah also appears as a term for God in Psa 50:22; Psa 139:19; and Prov 30:5. Although ’eloah as a divine name is rarely used outside Job, its literary history extends from at least the second millennium b.c. (as in Deut 32:15) to the fifth century b.c. (as in Neh 9:17).

"God Almighty." This combination of ’el with a qualifying term represents a religious tradition among the Israelites that was probably in existence by the third millennium b.c. A few centuries later, shadday appeared in Hebrew personal names such as Zurishaddai (Num 1:6) and Ammishaddai (Num 1:12). The earliest Old Testament appearance of the appellation as a title of deity ("God Almighty") is in Gen 17:1, where "God" identifies Himself in this way to Abraham.

Unfortunately, the name is not explained in any manner; and even the directions "walk before me, and be thou perfect" throw no light on the meaning of shadday. Scholars have attempted to understand the word relating it to the Akkadian sadu ("mountain"), as though "God" had either revealed His mighty power in association with mountain phenomena such as volcanic eruptions, or that He was regarded strong and immutable, like the "everlasting hills" of the blessing of Jacob (Gen 49:26). Certainly the associating of deity with mountains was an important part of Mesopotamian religion. The "gods" were believed to favor mountaintop dwellings, and the Sumerians constructed their staged temple-towers or ziggurats as artificial mountains for worship. It was customary to erect a small shrine on the uppermost stage of the ziggurat so that the patron deity could descend from heaven and inhabit the temple. The Hebrews began their own tradition of mountain revelation just after the Exodus, but by this time the name ’el shadday had been replaced by the tetragrammaton of Yahweh (Exod 3:15; Exod 6:3).

’El shadday served as the patriarchs' covenant name for "God," and continued as such until the time of Moses, when a further revelation took place (Exod 6:3). The Abrahamic covenant was marked by a degree of closeness between "God" and the human participants that was distinctive in Hebrew history. "God Almighty" revealed Himself as a powerful deity who was able to perform whatever He asserted. but the degree of intimacy between ’el shadday and the patriarchs at various stages shows that the covenant involved God's care and love for this growing family that He had chosen, protected, and prospered. He led the covenant family from place to place, being obviously present with them at all times. His covenant formulations show that He was not preoccupied with cultic rites or orgiastic celebrations. Instead, He demanded a degree of obedience that would enable Abraham and his descendants to walk in His presence, and live blameless moral and spiritual lives (Gen 17:1). The true covenantal service of ’el shadday, therefore, was not cultic or ritualistic, but moral and ethical in character.

In the early Mosaic era, the new redemptive name of "God" and the formulation of the Sinai covenant made ’el shadday largely obsolete as a designation of deity. Subsequently, the name occurs about 35 times in the Old Testament, most of which are in the Book of Job. Occasionally, the name is used synonymously with the tetragrammaton of Yahweh (Ruth 1:21; Psa 91:1-2), to emphasize the power and might of "God" in characteristic fashion.

"God of eternity; God the everlasting; God for ever." The word ‘ôlam has related forms in various ancient Near Eastern languages, all of which describe lengthy duration or distant time. The idea seems to be quantitative rather than metaphysical. Thus in Ugaritic literature, a person described as 'bd 'lm was a "permanent slave," the term 'lm (the same as the Hebrew ‘ôlam) expressing a period of time that could not be measured other than as lengthy duration.

Only in rare poetic passages such as Psa 90:2 are temporal categories regarded inadequate to describe the nature of God's existence as ’el ‘ôlam. In such an instance, the Creator is deemed to have been "from everlasting to everlasting"; but even this use of ‘ôlam expresses the idea of continued, measurable existence rather than a state of being independent of temporal considerations.

The name ’el ‘ôlam was associated predominantly with Beer-sheba (Gen 21:25-34). The settlement of Beer-sheba was probably founded during the Early Bronze Age, and the Genesis narrative explains that the name means "well of the oath" (Gen 21:31). but it could also mean "well of the seven", i.e., the seven lambs that were set apart as witnesses of the oath.

Abraham planted a commemorative tree in Beer-sheba and invoked the name of the Lord as ’el ‘ôlam. The fact that Abraham subsequently stayed many days in the land of the Philistines seems to imply that he associated continuity and stability with ’el ‘ôlam, who was not touched by the vicissitudes of time. Although Beer-sheba may have been a place where the Canaanites worshiped originally, the area later became associated with the veneration of the God of Abraham. At a subsequent period, Jacob journeyed to Beer-sheba and offered sacrifices to the God of Isaac his father. He did not offer sacrifices to ’el ‘ôlam by name, however; and although he saw a visionary manifestation of God, he received no revelation that this was the God Abraham had venerated at Beer-sheba. Indeed, God omitted any mention of Abraham, stating that He was the God of Jacob's father. Gen 21:33 is the only place in the Old Testament where the title ’el ‘ôlam occurs. Isa 40:28 is the only other instance where ‘ôlam is used in conjunction with a noun meaning "God." See also LORD.

(I) in the polytheism of the Greeks, denoted "a god or deity," e.g., Act 14:11, Act 19:26, Act 28:6, 1Co 8:5, Gal 4:8.

(II) (a) Hence the word was appropriated by Jews and retained by Christians to denote "the one true God." In the Sept. theos translates (with few exceptions) the Hebrew words Elohim and Jehovah, the former indicating His power and preeminence, the latter His unoriginated, immutable, eternal and self-sustained existence.

In the NT, these and all the other Divine attributes are predicated of Him. To Him are ascribed, e.g., His unity, or monism, e.g., Mar 12:29, 1Ti 2:5; self-existence, Joh 5:26; immutability, Jam 1:17; eternity, Rom 1:20; universality, Mat 10:29, Act 1:17-28; almighty power, Mat 19:26; infinite knowledge, Act 2:23, Act 15:18, Rom 11:33; creative power, Rom 11:36, 1Co 8:6, Eph 3:9, Rev 4:11, Rev 10:6; absolute holiness, 1Pe 1:15, 1Jo 1:5; righteousness, Joh 17:25; faithfulness, 1Co 1:9, 1Co 10:13, 1Th 5:24, 2Th 3:3, 1Jo 1:9; love, 1Jo 1:4,16; mercy, Rom 1:9,18; truthfulness, Tit 1:2, Heb 6:18. See GOOD, No. 1 (b).

(b) The Divine attributes are likewise indicated or definitely predicated of Christ, e.g., Mat 1:20,19, Joh 1:1-3, Joh 1:18, RV, marg.; Joh 1:5-29, Joh 8:58, Joh 14:6, Joh 1:17-24, Joh 20:28, Rom 1:4, Rom 9:5, Phi 3:21, Col 1:15, Col 2:3, Tit 2:13, RV; Heb 1:3, Heb 13:8, 1Jo 5:20, Rev 1:22,13.

(c) Also of the Holy Spirit, e.g., Mat 28:19, Luk 1:35, Joh 14:16, Joh 15:26, Joh 1:16-14, Rom 1:8,26, 1Co 12:11, 2Co 13:14.

(d) Theos is used (1) with the definite article, (2) without (i.e., as an anarthrous noun). "The English may or may not have need of the article in translation. but that point cuts no figure in the Greek idiom. Thus in Act 27:23 ('the God whose I am,' RV) the article points out the special God whose Paul is, and is to be preserved in English. In the very next verse (ho theos) we in English do not need the articles" (A. T. Robertson, Gram. of Greek, NT, p. 758).

As to this latter it is usual to employ the article with a proper name, when mentioned a second time. There are, of course, exceptions to this, as when the absence of the article serves to lay stress upon, or give precision to, the character or nature of what is expressed in the noun. A notable instance of this is in Joh 1:1, "and the Word was God;" here a double stress is on theos, by the absence of the article and by the emphatic position. To translate it literally, "a god was the Word," is entirely misleading. Moreover, that "the Word" is the subject of the sentence, exemplifies the rule that the subject is to be determined by its having the article when the predicate is anarthrous (without the article). In Rom 7:22, in the phrase "the law of God," both nouns have the article; in Rom 7:25, neither has the article. This is in accordance with a general rule that if two nouns are united by the genitive case (the "of" case), either both have the article, or both are without. Here, in the first instance, both nouns, "God" and "the law" are definite, whereas in Rom 7:25 the word "God" is not simply titular; the absence of the article stresses His character as lawgiver.

Where two or more epithets are applied to the same person or thing, one article usually serves for both (the exceptions being when a second article lays stress upon different aspects of the same person or subject, e.g., Rev 1:17). In Tit 2:13 the RV correctly has "our great God and Savior Jesus Christ." Moulton (Prol., p.84) shows, from papyri writings of the early Christian era, that among Greek-speaking Christians this was "a current formula" as applied to Christ. So in 2Pe 1:1 (cp. 2Pe 1:11, 2Pe 3:18).

In the following titles God is described by certain of His attributes; the God of glory, Act 7:2; of peace, Rom 15:33, Rom 16:20, Phi 4:9, 1Th 5:23, Heb 13:20; of love and peace, 2Co 13:11; of patience and comfort, Rom 15:5; of all comfort, 2Co 1:3; of hope, Rom 15:13; of all grace, 1Pe 5:10. These describe Him, not as in distinction from other persons, but as the source of all these blessings; hence the employment of the definite article. In such phrases as "the God of a person," e.g., Mat 22:32, the expression marks the relationship in which the person stands to God and God to him.

(e) In the following the nominative case is used for the vocative, and always with the article; Mar 15:34, Luk 1:18,13, Joh 20:28; (Act 4:24 in some mss.); Heb 1:8, Heb 10:7.

(f) The phrase "the things of God" (translated literally or otherwise) stands for (1) His interests, Mat 16:23, Mar 8:33; (2) His counsels, 1Co 2:11; (3) things which are due to Him, Mat 22:21, Mar 12:17, Luk 20:25. The phrase "things pertaining to God," Rom 15:17, Heb 2:17, Heb 5:1, describes, in the Heb. passages, the sacrificial service of the priest; in the Rom. passage the Gospel ministry as an offering to God.

(III) The word is used of Divinely appointed judges in Israel, as representing God in His authority, Joh 10:34, quoted from Psa 82:6, which indicates that God Himself sits in judgment on those whom He has appointed. The application of the term to the Devil, 2Co 4:4, and the belly, Phi 3:19, virtually places these instances under (I).